Darwinism in Education in historical context
In 1924, at an international conference on medical pedagogy in Munich, a state mission was declared: to prevent the decline of the nation through negative selection-eliminating and sterilizing those deemed “unfit.” This mission was rooted in a proposal presented in 1920 by critic Karl Binding and psychiatrist Alfred Hoche, titled “The Permission to Destroy Life Unworthy of Life” (Die Freigabe der Vernichtung lebensunwerten Lebens).
Thus, National Socialism became the uncompromising continuation of the widespread social Darwinism of the time. The number of auxiliary schools sharply declined, and those that remained had to meet societal standards of utility. The most severe measures targeted children with intellectual disabilities. Although educators avoided using terms like “feeble-minded,” the state sought to exclude children deemed incapable of learning from the general school system—a policy that effectively amounted to a death sentence.
In 1939, Germany implemented the euthanasia program, condemning children with intellectual disabilities in institutions, children born with disabilities in maternity wards, and many others to death. The death toll from such actions reached hundreds of thousands. By 1945, as a result of Allied operations, special institutions were emptied, and the auxiliary school system nearly ceased to exist.
After World War II, institutions resumed operations, but educational programs for children with limited opportunities were lacking. Schools once again saw a facade of inclusion. A similar situation emerged in the Soviet Union, where the rise in orphaned children, including those with disabilities, led to the creation of so-called “school-dormitories” for evacuated children and the expansion of orphanages as a forced measure of pseudo-inclusion.
At the broader European political level, significant changes occurred in the 1950s and 1960s. The establishment of the United Nations (UN) in 1945, tasked with protecting human life, liberty, and rights through its Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Geneva Conventions prohibiting murder and violence (1945–1949), and the European Convention on Human Rights reflected the evolution of societal consciousness in the post-war period.
During these years, Western Europe improved its diagnostic systems, established registries for children with developmental disorders, and refined classifications of disabilities. This led to the emergence of new categories for children with special educational needs, including those with sensory impairments, learning difficulties, and socio-psychological syndromes. Consequently, the number of specialized educational institutions grew, paralleling stratification within the system. A similar trend was observed in the USSR.
By the 1960s, school rights for children with intellectual disabilities were legally protected across all German federal states, eliminating discrimination within the school system. Ministerial decrees quickly led to the establishment of regular special classes, which later evolved into independent special schools.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) laid the foundation for subsequent international documents and resolutions aimed at regulating the relationship between society, the state, and children with special needs. In 1959, the UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, affirming the fundamental principles of human rights and freedoms for “all children without exception or distinction.”
The 1960 Geneva International Conference on Public Education adopted a declaration combating discrimination in education. It emphasized that children with disabilities, regardless of their abilities, had the right to education in both specialized institutions and mainstream schools alongside their peers. This declaration became one of the first documents promoting integrated education and upbringing.
In the late 1960s, Western educational systems increasingly emphasized humanitarian principles, including equal educational opportunities for all children and the elimination of special schools for those with atypical development. Discussions about creating universal schools integrating children with diverse educational needs became more frequent. Calls for early integration of children with limited opportunities into mainstream schools grew louder, seen as a gateway to their inclusion in societal life.
In the Soviet Union during the post-war period, the interests of children with special educational needs were addressed through a specialized educational system that intensified and stratified. During this time, the logical, theoretical, and methodological foundations of special education were developed.
A significant international milestone was the UN’s 1971 declaration on the rights of people with intellectual disabilities. This document affirmed the necessity of fully supporting individuals with intellectual disabilities possible, enabling their inclusion in mainstream societal life.
The increase in specialized educational institutions, once seen as a merit of the special education system, began to be viewed negatively in the 1970s. Special schools were criticized as segregated institutions, and the special education system was labeled discriminatory. Sending children to special schools, let alone orphanages, was increasingly seen as a violation of their fundamental rights and freedoms.
This historical overview highlights the complex evolution of educational approaches toward inclusion, reflecting broader societal shifts in understanding human rights and dignity.
By Anahit Petrosyan, a leading social educator
